Literature Review: Why were Militia and Volunteers important within the Auckland Province between 1860 to 1865?

 Literature review

Note:The context behind the 5,000 word literature review was an independent research assignment through my university studies with a supervisor. I wanted to do a research assignment on New Zealand, but had no family tree stories that could fit the word count at this point in time. I also had an idea about the New Zealand Wars and this assignment was the result. I may write up the actual assignment in the future. I was born in New Zealand, but spent most of my life in Australia. One of the perks in studying history is I wanted to do something on New Zealand and this is the result. I have left the footnotes in as they add to the literature for readers wanting to look further into NZ history.

 

Why were Militia and Volunteers important within the Auckland Province between 1860 to 1865? How were they different from the British Regiments already in New Zealand?

The British military fought several important wars between 1860 and 1865, within New Zealand that would become part of what is now known as the New Zealand Wars. Individually, the conflicts are known as the Taranaki and Waikato wars. Civilians were conscripted under the Militia Act 1858 to serve as citizen soldiers known as militia and volunteers when required. The nature of the conflict within New Zealand was between European settlers and ‘friendly’ Maori (the native inhabitants of New Zealand) and ‘rebel’ Maori. Interest in New Zealand conflicts have increased since the early 1980s, through publications on the topic, such as James Belich’s The New Zealand Wars, and increasing publicity through action from Maori activists including the 1975 land march led by Whina Cooper.[1] New Zealand researchers focus upon various events in New Zealand history including both military and land issues. Through their research the authors have written about past events for new generations. Researchers like James Belich, Vincent O’Malley, Matthew Wright, Danny Keenan and Peter Maxwell have written about subjects, putting forward questions towards their readers.[2] Early researchers like James Cowan and John Featon’s books are frequently consulted by present historians on the New Zealand Wars. Cowan and Featon focus on issues surrounding Auckland during the Waikato War especially when civilians are placed under pressure to protect settlements while the military had gone to fight the Maori. The remnants of past conflicts still exist throughout the ever-changing landscape and are threatened by new developments including road and building construction.[3] This paper reviews the literature, both primary and secondary sources, about militia and volunteers during their service within Auckland and surrounding areas. The purpose of this literature review is to provide an analysis of literature, which is useful towards understanding why militia and volunteers were important within the Auckland Province between 1860 and 1865, and to examine how they were different from the British military already stationed in New Zealand.

Settlers within New Zealand, especially Auckland realised the need for protection after conflict in Northland between Hone Heke and European settlers in 1845.[4] The resulting Northern War created the Militia Ordinance effectively raising a militia force in Auckland and the evacuation from Whangarei of frightened citizens who feared the town could be attacked by the Maori. The creation of the Militia Ordinance meant civilian raised soldiers could defend New Zealand, although unlike the British military, known as regulars, they had little training.  The establishment of a militia had not been a specific New Zealand solution to a perceived military threat. They had their origins within Britain and the separate Australian colonies created regulations for militia and volunteers from 1854.[5] Neil Preston through his book explores the Australian colonies reasons for creating militia and volunteer organisations for the protection of the settlements. Preston covers New Zealand’s reasons for creating the militia Act in 1858 and how the legislation was used within the country for protection of settlements. James Rolfe provides an early history behind the use of civilian soldiers under the Militia Ordinance and the Militia Act 1858.[6] R.H. Wynyard in 1858 had been worried about the defence of Auckland when the military was sent elsewhere within the colony leaving only a small garrison within the city. The New Zealand government recorded their response through parliamentary records.[7] Vincent O’Malley explains during the Taranaki War in 1861, there had been the threat of attack from Maori on Auckland. The rumour would have caused fear since the military presence within the settlement had been reduced.[8] Adam Davis points out while the soldiers were concentrated fighting the Maori within the Taranaki district, other areas were left relatively undefended and could easily been attacked.[9] The British military were stretched thin throughout New Zealand and required assistance from the civilian population.

Alan La Roche and Ruth Alexander reviewed the New Zealand Fencibles as part of the Auckland defences through the creation of villages from 1847. The Fencibles were retired or pensioned soldiers with around fifteen or more years of service with the British army. Four settlements south of Auckland, were formed for them: Panmure, Otahuhu, Howick and Onehunga. Their role was created under the threat of Maori who had sacked Kororareka (now known as Russell), north of Auckland in the Bay of Islands in 1845.[10] The literature by Roche and Alexander contributes towards the successful creation of fencible villages, which were early defences for Auckland. The Fencibles had practical military experience from protecting Britain’s interests including service in India and China. Auckland from 1841 had been the capital of New Zealand. Many of the Fencibles would later become part of the militia and volunteer system in New Zealand. Their military experience could be used to enhance the training of civilian raised soldiers. During 1860s the conflicts there would be tensions within the villages about attacks from Maori. Some of the residents within fencible villages would send their family and valuables to Auckland for safety. The New Zealand Fencibles were part of the defensive capabilities the country had to use to protect the civilian population from attack.

Andrew Brett speculates the 1853 creation of the province system in New Zealand lead to the appearance of the Kingitanga movement in 1858. The Kingitanga was founded in 1858 aiming to place Maori under one sovereign. Maori before were independent groups under leadership of tribal chiefs. The increase in British settlers meant Maori needed one voice. The first Maori king was Potatau Te Wherowhero based in the Waikato town of Ngaruawahia. The Kingitanga wanted an equal footing with Queen Victoria especially for issues regarding land.[11] Arthur Thomson explained Auckland’s vulnerability to attack from the Waikato tribes could have occurred well before the events during the 1860s even though they acted as a form of protection for the settlement.[12] Ron Crosby and Vincent O’Malley explain the Kingitanga movement were instrumental to the conflicts during the 1860s and beyond. Potatau Te Wherowhero became king in 1858 until 1860, when his son Tawiao became king. The Kingitanga were protagonists in both the Taranaki War in 1860, and the Waikato War in 1863, when the British military invaded the territory under orders from Governor Sir George Grey. The settlers themselves were wary of the Maori especially the creation of the Kingitanga. Many settlers had hostile reactions towards the Maori during 1861, as noted by Governor George Grey once he replaced Thomas Gore Browne.[13] The Kingitanga were the biggest threat to the British settlers and Governor George Grey knew a greater military force would be required.

New Zealand’s political climate according to Edmund Bohan was complex while the conflicts were occurring throughout the North Island. Changes between governors did bring brief respite with rumoured attack on the then capital city of New Zealand, Auckland. After replacing Thomas Gore Browne in 1861, Sir George Grey had plans of his own for dealing with the Maori question and the looming Kingitanga threat to Auckland. George Grey would counter the Waikato Maori threat through building a military road, which would become known as the Great South Road.[14] Maurice Lennard examines the creation of the Great South Road and its importance to the invasion of the Waikato region south of Auckland. The building of the road was done by detachments of troops and engineers in 1861. Lennard points out the road direction were following old native tracks. Building the road meant isolated settlements would have access to other settlements like Auckland. The construction would reach Pokeno at its most southerly point and the starting point where the British military could launch their invasion.[15] The Great South Road would be used as a political weapon by the Governor in his quest to defeat the Kingitanga Maori and to access the land they resided on.

Escalating conflict on the West Coast of New Zealand specifically the New Plymouth region later known as the Taranaki region, were proving grounds for the Militia Act 1858. Murray Moorhead extends upon a previously unfinished history about the Taranaki Volunteers, which had been written in 1909. Moorhead explains the differences between the militia and volunteers and, potential problems within the use of civilian soldiers compared to the military. Moorhead points out the lack of training with the militia did not curb their enthusiasm to serve alongside the military.[16] Peter Maxwell explores the relationship between the civilian raised soldiers and the British imperial soldiers during the beginnings of the Taranaki War. An example during some fighting the military were withdrawn to the dismay of the militia who were being fired upon by Maori. The relationship between British soldiers and the civilian armed settlers would have been strained from that moment. [17] Clifford Ian Simmons explains armed civilians under the Militia Act had an advantage over the British military as many of the men farmed the locations and knew the area well. Their knowledge would have been useful throughout the Taranaki War.[18] The Taranaki War proved how useful the Militia Act was towards the defence of the civilian population.

The Militia Act 1858 would forever change how civilians would be used within New Zealand when calling them to arms to defend settlements like New Plymouth. Within the Act there was room for the formation of male volunteers who could serve as an alternative for militia duty when the governor called them out. The Militia Act called for the male population to be called out for service within the district they resided. Under the legislation there were three groups. These were First Militia, being single men between the ages of eighteen to forty; Second Militia being, Married Men; and, the final group being the Third Militia, who were older men aged forty to fifty-five.[19] Ian McGibbon explains the militia were settlers who were the home guard and could be called for home defence of their settlements during an emergency by the governor. The militia were restricted to the district they were called from and could only travel around twenty-three kilometres from the post office or police station they had signed on.[20] Peter Cooke et al, explains once the militia lists were compiled the men who were eligible for training were called up for training, although they could find a replacement at a cost. The Militia Act 1858 had another part where settlers could join as a volunteer as an alternative to militia duty.[21]

In 1858, Auckland had formed two volunteer companies under the direction of the then Governor Thomas Gore Browne. These companies were the Royal Company of Auckland Volunteers and ‘The City’ company of Auckland Volunteers. They had been made up of around one hundred men including one captain and two lieutenants.^[22] James Rolfe and Ian McGibbon within their volumes explain that the volunteers were resultant from the Militia Act 1858, when many of the settlements within New Zealand formed volunteer units. One hundred men were usually the maximum size of each volunteer group including Infantry, cavalry and artillery. By joining the volunteers, these men were exempt from militia service.[23] The Militia Act regulations for volunteers were that they were to be formed for one year when sworn in and the training was to be for at least 168 hours per year. Since volunteers were exempt from militia duty, they could be either sent anywhere within New Zealand or overseas if the government desired. None had been posted overseas between 1860 and 1865.[24] Correspondence with Colonel William Kenny who was commander of the Auckland garrison between 1860 and 1861. In 1860, he suggested the volunteers receive extra money and were carefully selected due to their locality to the barracks in Auckland, where around three hundred militia would be transferred to the volunteers.[25] Henry Balneavis, the Deputy Adjunct of the Militia and Volunteers, was reported through the local newspapers on many occasions discussing the volunteers. During 1862 he had reported disbanding the volunteers in Auckland, where they were reformed after new rules and regulations had been drafted. He did discuss the need for volunteers to be used to defend Auckland from the Otahuhu bridge.[26] McGibbon did point out the volunteers were only paid while they were on active service and provided with basic equipment by the government. The Auckland Volunteers could return to their employment when they returned from active duty. Once the Waikato Militia arrived during 1864, the volunteers could return to their usual livelihoods.[27]

The Taranaki War began in March 1860, and by April it had been reported through the Daily Southern Cross that three Auckland volunteer units had been called out for parade. The Rutland, Royal Company and Victoria Volunteers were sent for their training within Auckland at Albert Barracks. The three groups are provided with their positions when there is a fire in the city.^[28] Correspondence with the Militia in 1860 discusses the times the militia, volunteers and every available man in Auckland were wanted for parade, with the recommendations of the times each company were to parade. Colonel Kenny had been concerned about the defence of the Auckland district once the military had been moved out. Specifically defending areas south of the city.[29] News report in October 1860, discusses the Auckland militia being drilled in the city near the Albert Barracks to upper Queen street totalling 900 men marching their way through the city as part of their training.^[30] In another report from August 1861, the militia were requested to halt their training and go back to their lives. The First Taranaki War had ended in March of 1861. Official Parliamentary Papers do not report the deactivation of the militia duties.^[31] News correspondence reported on the New Zealand Wars especially what was occurring within the settlements for the civilians to prepare themselves for war.

There were different volunteer organisations created under the Militia Act 1858.  One such group created through the legislation was the Naval Volunteers. Auckland created their own from 1858, but the group was quickly disbanded due to the lack of artillery equipment. Alan Henderson, David Green and Peter Cooke explore the history behind the naval artillery during the Taranaki and Waikato war periods and the effectiveness of the weapons used by the naval volunteers.[32] Newspapers predicted Auckland being attacked and anticipated the militia would be called out. The Volunteer Naval Brigade were actively searching the waters for an elusive enemy out to cause trouble in Auckland. [33] Peter Cooke summarises the defences of the harbours around New Zealand including Auckland from perceived threats using the Auckland Naval Volunteers, who were also known as the Coast Guards. Their task was to fight internal threats from the Maori.[34] The Daily Southern Cross, in 1860, provided extra information about the creation of the Naval Volunteers including the names of the men involved within the organisation. The rest of the information provides the military divisions which the unit was divided.[35] The archival source from the Camp Adjunct located in Otahuhu during 1863, not only involves the naval volunteers parading with the other troops, but a series of dispatches between 1862 and 1863. The correspondence includes the naval volunteers wanting to use the pinnacle, which had once belonged to the Orpheus. The Orpheus wreck was the worst maritime disaster at the time off Manukau Heads. There is also lists of equipment needed when a new vessel at an earlier period was required. The most notable entry is about the Volunteers not being allowed to attend the Queen’s birthday celebrations due to some lacking the training they needed for drills.[36] The Auckland Naval volunteers were the most distinctive of the volunteers within Auckland. Their role not only involved infantry exercises, but they were trained to work on watercraft as their main role while patrolling local waterways with naval vessels.

Ron Crosby explains the reasoning behind the conflict on the North Island why two Governors, Thomas Gore Browne and Sir George Grey felt threatened by the Kingitanga Maori especially through their opposition to selling land for use of building settlements and farming. Both Browne and Grey wanted the Kingitanga movement to be removed or under their control, which would decrease the threat of Auckland being attacked.[37] James Cowan and John Featon both explore the roles of the residents within Auckland through the militia and volunteers. They point out civilians were required to fill the roles of the military, specifically manning the garrison and guarding the settlements from attack. The military had moved onto the Waikato area from 1863 to fight the Maori.[38] A.J. Harrop and the New Zealander during 1863, explained the government might not have considered consequences of placing the able bodied male population into the militia and volunteer services. Auckland suffered financially through men unable to engage the communities through their trades.[39]

 

Militia and volunteers had some form of training to form discipline between 1860 and 1865, which was part of the requirement for their continued service for the colony and the settlements in which they resided. Observances through primary and secondary sources all provide examples towards the training of the civilian soldiers who replaced well trained military who fought against the Maori. Adam Davis’ thesis about Imperial soldiers within New Zealand provides the best insight into the lack of training by comparing the citizens to that of the imperial military. An example is the militia was expected to follow the same rules and regulations as the imperial military.[40] The 1861 Parliamentary Journal for the House of Representatives includes correspondence between officials like Governor Thomas Gore Browne and Premier Edward Stafford about the militia and volunteers within New Zealand. Edward Stafford was Premier of New Zealand between 1856 and 1861. They raise issues about the Militia Act and the costs involved in calling the militia out for duty, which happened during the Taranaki War that began in 1860.[41] An order in council from the clerk of the executive council, Forster Goring during September 1863, explains the use of the Mutiny Act and Articles of War through the Colonial Defence Force Act 1862. The men were required to serve for twelve months under the regulations. Misbehaviour like shirking duty or deserting their post would mean they could be charged under the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War.[42] An August 1863 letter between Fort Britomart and the Militia Adjunct in Auckland reveals problems between the military and the militia on garrison duty regarding their training and discipline and their lack of professionalism.[43]

The roles of the militia and volunteers were varied during the New Zealand Wars and can be traced through primary and secondary sources. The civilian soldiers were used by the British military for their specific trades and other duties, which could be deemed appropriate. Alexandra Simmons’ thesis finds the militia had specific trades that were beneficial through helping the military when they included bakers and butchers at one end of food production roles.[44] Not only was food production essential for the Waikato War, but as Maurice Lennard points out, along the Great South Road, the militia were used to escort supplies between settlements. Using militia for these specific tasks freed the regular soldiers for duty elsewhere. Militia and volunteers not only escorted convoys, they built fortifications such as redoubts and dug trenches.[45] Local newspapers reported one hundred of the volunteers had been called to assemble at the Albert Barracks for their role as guards once the British military had been marched south.[46] In November of 1863, the aftermath of one severe storm meant Lieutenant Colonel Haultain required the services from the Onehunga Volunteers to help the Royal Engineers by providing six carpenters and six labourers.[47] During 1863 the militia as part of their duty had been required for night patrol searching for trouble. By October 1863, the Third-Class Militia aged between 40 and 55 had their duty disbanded or discontinued through correspondence to their captain. The two other militia classes were required to remain active and were urged to be careful throughout their duties.[48] 

During the Taranaki War between 1860 and 1861, the militia and volunteers were active in defending New Plymouth and surrounds from attack including helping both the navy and the military to fight the Maori. Moorhead examines what the civilian soldiers could expect when they served with the soldiers and became involved with fighting the Maori.[49] James Cowan and Peter Maxwell in their books analyse the events, which took place during 1863 in Pukekohe where the local rifle volunteers had built defences around a local church and were soon defending the location from a Maori attack. They successfully defended the location and reinforcements soon came to help.[50] Peter Cooke and others, within their work begin by discussing the Auckland Rifle Volunteers being stationed at Galloway Redoubt where they had been fired upon. They further list several other engagements, including the Mauku Rifles getting shot at but no casualties. Although Gustavus Von Tempsky mentions holes in their clothing from being shot at. Von Tempsky,  born in Prussia, arrived in New Zealand seeking gold in 1862. He would join the Forest Rangers, a volunteer unit during the Waikato War. He would become captain of the second company of the Forest Rangers, although he would late be killed in 1868 as one of the Armed Constabulary fighting against Titokowaru.[51] Cowan writes about another conflict the Auckland Volunteers were involved in while they were stationed in Wairoa. The volunteers were playing a game of cricket when Maori launched an attack on them.[52] Allen Henderson points out the Auckland Coast Guard and Onehunga Naval Volunteers did see some action during their patrols with what was called hostile natives in 1863, both on the Firth of Thames and the southern shore of Manukau harbour.[53]

Jock Phillips and Terry Hearn explain some of the issues behind the 1863 Waikato War as the government required armed settlers to create a sense of a buffer zone for Auckland. The prospect of land offers, and a new life would have been one reason for people arriving in New Zealand.[54] Many people submitted offers for their services to the New Zealand government through suggestions about military settlers within the Auckland area of New Zealand. In February 1864, Von Tempsky who had experience as a journalist, wrote his observations of the Australian emigration scheme, that it had fallen short on expectations and he had a suggestion of his own. He thought people from the north of Germany would be ideal for settlement for they were farmers and love working their land.[55] In March 1864, Alexander Bradley suggested farmers from the province of Ulster in Ireland could be introduced as military settlers since they were valuable for their farming skills.[56] The introduction of military settlers would have several advantages for the New Zealand government as they would have more settlers offering their services through their farming experiences and they could be used for protecting the settlements in time of conflict.

Frank Glen through his monograph explains the beginnings of the Waikato Militia who were sent from Australian colonies to fight in the Waikato War for the government. They fought under the promise they would receive land for performing their duty.[57] Edmund Bohan explains the role of the Waikato Militia whose roles were to create military settlements around South Auckland and the Waikato region. The Waikato regiments or militia as they were known were divided into four regiments under the overall command of General Duncan Cameron. General Duncan Cameron was first appointed commander of the Imperial Forces in New Zealand in January 1861. Cameron would lead the invasion of the Waikato against the Kingitanga in 1863. He would serve in New Zealand until 1865 after resigning from his position.[58] The New Zealander reported the arrival of soldiers from the Australian colonies in September 1863, who would fight for New Zealand in their wars and did question what the soldiers would be called.[59] The Daily Southern Cross reported on the movements of various military units throughout the New Zealand Wars including that of the Waikato Militia military settlers going from Otahuhu to Papakura towards the end of September in 1863.[60] H.C.M. Norris reports the regulations for the Waikato settlers within his book along with the conditions for settling the land and service. Amongst them is the age of the settlers and the fact they would get free passage from the government. Some of the recruits came from the South Island, but the majority were found in the Australian colonies.[61] Vincent O’Malley examines the concept of the military settlements where the Waikato Militia were to get their land especially when the land was unsuitable for farming as they were either swamps or other forms of barren land. Towns like Cambridge and Hamilton would be military settlements.[62]

Defending townships and other settlements were crucial during the wars. The militia and volunteers were called to defend through garrisoning buildings to defend them when hostilities arose. The main defences within Auckland were Fort Britomart on Auckland harbour and Albert Barracks. The militia and volunteers would gather there for both training and garrison duty especially during the Waikato War. David Green describes redoubts as earthworks and stockades as wooden buildings built on abandoned pa, which were once Maori defences. The locations usually had strategic importance to the military.[63]  British military personnel like Colonel William Kenny would examine possible locations within townships near Auckland, that citizens could defend. Colonel Kenny when visiting Papakura found two buildings, which could be defended. Drury had structures that commanded views of crossroads, which could see hostiles approaching. Civilians provided Kenny with correspondence to the governor about building a blockhouse in Drury which the volunteers could defend during the event of war. Both towns are between thirty-two and thirty-six kilometres south of Auckland city.[64] The militia and volunteers were involved with building defences from redoubts to trenches. James Cowan includes diary excerpts from one militiaman who was not enthusiastic about tasks given to him especially without alcohol rations.[65] Alexandra Simmons points out that the Waikato Militia were required to build stockades within the towns as part of the conditions of service.[66] Exploring the township’s defences would provide the military with an understanding on how the location could be defended and how the inhabitants would react during an emergency.

The withdrawal of the British military from New Zealand was covered through two theses by Richard Taylor and Adam Davis. Most of the British military was slowly withdrawn from New Zealand between 1864 and 1866. The last of the British Forces to leave was during 1870, this meant that New Zealand would require its own permanent force before they had departed.[67] The correspondence from Major De Quincey in March 1864, informed the Auckland Militia, Onehunga Volunteers and the Naval Volunteers their military services were to be discontinued in 1864. This meant it was part of the wind down for the Militia and Volunteers within the Auckland region towards the end of the Waikato War, when the Waikato Militia had arrived in New Zealand.[68] Harrop discussed the reasons behind standing down the militia, which included the financial burden to settlements like Auckland. Activating the militia had caused shortages in manpower for local trades and businesses.[69] The New Zealand Government became self-reliant upon its own policies including defence, through the withdrawal of the British Imperial Forces and the British government from direct rule in 1870. The Militia Act 1865 and Volunteer Act 1865 passed through parliament, the volunteers were now separated from the Militia Act. From the beginning of 1866, the Volunteer Act 1865 came into force.[70] Peter Maxwell explains the changes to The Colonial Defence Force Act 1862 was replaced by the Armed Constabulary Act 1867 during the withdrawal of the British military. The Armed Constabulary operated like a police force within frontier towns like Hamilton.[71]

Today reminders of the New Zealand Wars especially around Auckland still exist within the modern landscape. Researchers like Jock Phillips have written about the reminders of the past from monuments usually dedicated towards the settlers to attempted preservation of locations deemed of historic important to the nation. Phillips recorded early attempts in preserving locations from development, which had failed during the early twentieth century.[72] Towards the end of 1987, Nigel Prickett was one of several experts consulted regarding St John’s Redoubt and the impacts that nearby developments would have on the location. He included the history and archaeological significance of the site to New Zealand. Historian Maurice Lennard included an excerpt of his monograph about the Redoubt as evidence for the file.[73] Prickett has contributed extensively to the preservation of New Zealand’s archaeological past. He has written about the New Zealand Wars especially the fortifications that are part of the modern landscape use by both Maori and British soldiers. As one of many publications for the Department of Conservation are used to inform locals and tourists alike to the heritage of New Zealand.[74] Neville Ritchie and David Green have written detailed accounts about the New Zealand Wars and where they are located. Ritchie’s account is specifically about the Waikato War and alongside Green’s visitor guide it can provide people with valuable information about the New Zealand Wars.[75] Educating people about the New Zealand Wars has changed through the traditional media and the rise of social media. Teachers and historians like Vincent O’Malley have lent their voices towards programs that focus especially on youth about past events including the continued effects that the New Zealand Wars have had on New Zealand.[76]

The Militia and volunteers played an important role in the history of New Zealand especially during times of conflict and uncertainty. Between 1860 and 1865, the settlements around Auckland were threatened with attacked from hostile Maori that would lead to the Waikato War. During the period of conflict, the militia and volunteers acted as protectors of settlements in lieu of the British Military who were fighting the Maori. Both the militia and volunteers were first and foremost civilians. All able-bodied men were required to serve within the militia unless they instead joined the volunteer units, which was an alternative under the Militia Act 1858. They were governed by the same regulations the British military were even though they were civilians. The militia training meant they would be of limited use during conflict, although the men showed enthusiasm for their roles. During the Waikato War in 1863, the militia were activated by Governor George Grey where they would escort supplies, guard military installations like Fort Britomart on Auckland’s waterfront or patrol the streets. Using the militia and volunteers would have economic consequences especially when Auckland experienced labour shortages. Militia and volunteers were involved in limited conflict situations during their service while the British military were extensively used throughout the war period. The arrival of the Waikato Militia meant the Auckland based militia and volunteers could decrease their service within the Auckland province. The Waikato Militia had been recruited from Australia and from New Zealand’s South Island with offers of land in return for their service. Researchers from James Cowan to Vincent O’Malley have written extensively about the internal wars in New Zealand and the impacts upon society. Archaeologists, like Nigel Prickett fight to preserve the physical reminders of the past conflicts before they vanish forever through time or development.

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Phillips, Jock and Hearn, Terry Settlers: New Zealand Immigrants from England, Ireland and Scotland 1800 – 1945, Auckland, Auckland University Press, 2008.

Preston, Neil Military Law in Colonial Australia, Annandale, The Federation Press, 2016.

Prickett, Nigel ‘The archaeology of the New Zealand Wars’, Australasian Historical Archaeology, vol. 10, 1992, pp. 3-14.

Rabel, Roberto ‘War History as public history: Past and future’, in Going Public: The Changing Face of New Zealand History, Bronwyn Dalley and Jock Phillips (ed.), Auckland, University of Auckland Press, 2001, pp. 55 – 73.

Ritchie, Neville The Waikato War of 1863 – 64, Te Awamutu, Department of Conservation, 2007.

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Rolfe, James The Armed Forces of New Zealand, St Leonards, Allen and Unwin, 1999.

Schmidt, Tyson “An antidote to the British system’ 1860s warfighting pā and the architectural tactics of deception, trickery, cunning, and subterfuge’, Fabrications: The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand, vol. 21, 2012, pp. 29 – 44.

Simmons, Alexandra Lee ‘Soldiers’ foodways: Historical archaeology of military comestibles in the Waikato Campaign of the New Zealand Wars’, Ph.D. thesis, University of Otago, 2013.

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Thomson, Arthur S. ‘A Statistical Account of Auckland, New Zealand, as it was Observed During the Year 1848’, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Vol. 14, 1851, pp. 227-249.

Williams, Clifford Roy ‘Military intelligence in the New Zealand Wars 1845 – 1864’, Ph.D. thesis, Massey University, 2012.

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Wright, Matthew Two Peoples, One Land: The New Zealand Wars, Auckland, Reed Publishing, 2006.

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[1]              Roberto Rabel, ‘War history as public history: Past and future’, in Going Public: The Changing Face of New Zealand history, Bronwyn Dalley and Jock Phillips (ed.), Auckland, 2001, pp. 63 – 66.

[2]              James Belich, The New Zealand Wars, Auckland, 1988; Peter Maxwell, Frontier: The Battle for the North Island of New Zealand 1860 – 1872, Auckland 2011; Matthew Wright, Two Peoples, One Land: The New Zealand Wars, Auckland, 2006; Vincent O’Malley, Beyond the Imperial Frontier: The Contest for Colonial New Zealand, Wellington, 2014; Danny Keenan, Wars Without End: The Land Wars in Nineteenth Century New Zealand, Auckland, 2009.

[3]              James Cowan The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. 1 (1845 – 1864), Wellington, 1955, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow01NewZ-c27.html, accessed 4 August, 2016; John Featon, The Waikato War, East Sussex, 2009 [1879].

[4]              For details on the Northern War, A.M. Rust, Whangarei and Districts’ Early Reminiscences, Whangarei, 2009; A.H. Reed, The Story of Northland, Wellington, 1975; Jack Lee, The Bay of Islands, Auckland, 1983; Wright, Two Peoples, pp. 40 – 42.

[5]              Neil Preston, Military Law in Colonial Australia, Annandale, 2016, pp. 149 – 150.

[6]              James Rolfe, Armed Forces of New Zealand, St Leonards, 1999, pp. 2 – 3.

[7]              R.H. Wynyard, 22 January 1858 correspondence about troops being dispatched to Napier. Auckland left insufficiently defended, original held in National Archives of New Zealand Wellington office, Item ID R22399725.

[8]              Vincent O’Malley, The Great War for New Zealand Waikato 1800 – 2000, Wellington, 2016, pp. 131 – 134.

[9]              Adam Davis, The Imperial Garrison in New Zealand, 1840-1870 with Particular Reference to Auckland, Ph.D. thesis, University of Luton, 2004, p. 74.

[10]             Alan La Roche, Grey’s Folly, Auckland, 2011; Ruth Alexander, The Royal New Zealand Fencibles 1847 - 1852, Auckland, 1997.

[11]             Andre Brett, Acknowledge no Frontier: The creation and demise of New Zealand’s Provinces 1853 – 76, Dunedin, 2016, pp. 132 – 135.

[12]             Arthur S. Thomson, ‘A Statistical Account of Auckland, New Zealand, as it was Observed During the Year 1848’, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Vol. 14, 1851, pp. 227-249.

[13]            Crosby, Kupapa, p. 140; O’Malley War, pp. 84 - 93.

[14]             Edmund Bohan, Climates of War: New Zealand in Conflict 1859 – 69, Christchurch, 2005, pp. 92 – 98.

[15]             Maurice Lennard, The Road to War: The Great South Road 1862 – 1864, Whakatane, 1986, pp. 1 – 4.

[16]             Murray Moorhead, First in Arms: New Zealand’s Colonial Fighters Taranaki War 1860 – 61, New Plymouth, 2004, pp. 3 – 16. Note: The short book referred to by Murray Moorhead was William Penn’s 1909, ‘The Taranaki Rifle Volunteers – A corps with a history’. William took over from someone else commissioned who pulled out before an event involving the Taranaki Volunteers in 1909.

[17]             Maxwell, Frontier, pp. 31 – 33.

[18]             Clifford Roy Williams, ‘Military intelligence in the New Zealand Wars 1845 – 1864’, Ph.D. thesis, Massey University, 2012, pp. 156 – 157.

[19]             Preston, Military, p. 149; Peter Cooke, John H. Gray, Ken Stead, Auckland Infantry, Auckland, 2010, p. 41.

[20]             Ian McGibbon, Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History, Auckland, 2000, p. 331.

[21]            Cooke et al., Auckland Infantry, Auckland, 2010, p. 40.

[22]             Deputy Adjunct General, 27 February 1860, Auckland militia district Regulations, p. 3, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24487574.

[23]             Rolfe, Armed, p. 3; McGibbon, Oxford, p. 566.

[24]             Deputy Adjunct General 27 February 1860, 27 Feb 1860 Auckland militia district Regulations, pp. 1 - 2, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24487574.

[25]             Colonel Kenny, 13 December 1860, various correspondence on the subject of the militia force and defences, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24217591; Governor to Colonial Secretary, 26 January 1860, Appointments of officers in city council Auckland: Auckland rifle volunteers, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24125162.

[26]             Anon., ‘New Zealand Volunteers’, Otago Daily Times, 15 February 1862, p. 3, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/ODT18620215.2.15, accessed 2 April 2018; Anon., ‘Auckland Rifle Volunteers. Important Meeting’, Daily Southern Cross, 21 February 1862, p. 4, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/DSC18620221.2.15, accessed 5 April 2018.

[27]             McGibbon, Oxford, p. 567.

[28]             Anon., ‘Auckland Volunteer Rifles’, Daily Southern Cross, 1 May 1860, p. 2,

              https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/DSC18600501.2.13.2, accessed 5 April 2018.

[29]             Colonel Kenny, Various correspondence on the subject of the militia force and defences, 13 December 1860, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24217591.

[30]              Anon., ‘Inspection of the Forces at Auckland’, New Zealander, 13 October 1860, p. 3, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NZ18601013.2.15, accessed 5 April 2018.

[31]             Anon., ‘Military and Naval’, Wellington Independent, 16 August 1861, p. 4,

                https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/WI18610816.2.7, accessed 5 April 2018.

[32]             Alan Henderson, David Green and Peter Cooke, The Gunners: A History of New Zealand Artillery, North Shore, 2008, pp. 22 – 27.

[33]             Anon., ‘Maritime Record’, New Zealander, 7 April 1860, p. 3, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NZ18600407.2.5, accessed 9 April 2018.

[34]             Peter Cooke, Defending New Zealand: Ramparts on the sea 1840 – 1950s, Wellington, 2002, pp. 136 -  143.

[35]             Anon., ‘Coast Guards’, Daily Southern Cross, 24 April 1860, p. 3, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/DSC18600424.2.9.5, accessed 9 April 2018.

[36]             Camp Adjutant, Otahuhu, 24 May 1863, Telegraph despatch relative to Auckland Naval Volunteers parading with troops, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24478151.

[37]             Crosby, Kupapa, pp. 188 – 189.

[38]             James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. 1 (1845 – 1864), Wellington, 1955, pp. 244 – 247, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow01NewZ-b4.html, accessed 9 April 2018; Featon, Waikato, pp. 18 – 20.

[39]             A.J. Harrop, England and the Maori Wars, London, 1937, p. 199, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz//tm/scholarly/tei-HarEngl.html, accessed 10 April 2017; Anon. ‘The Militia’, New Zealander, 18 June 1863, p. 3, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NZ18630618.2.12, accessed 9 April 2018.

[40]             Davis, ‘Imperial’, pp. 82 – 83.

[41]             A-06b Papers Relative to the organisation of the Militia in New Zealand, 1 January 1862, p. 5, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/parliamentary/AJHR1862-I.2.1.2.12, accessed 9 April 2018.

[42]              Order in Council, Auckland 4 September 1863, Muting Act and articles of war under ‘Colonial Defence Force Act’ to be in force, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24075622.

[43]             Garrison Adjutant, Auckland,7 August 1863, Relative to Fort Britomart Guard. original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24478828.

[44]             Alexandra Lee Simmons, ‘Soldiers’ foodways: Historical archaeology of military comestibles in the Waikato Campaign of the New Zealand Wars’, Ph.D. thesis University of Otago, 2013, p. 172.

[45]             Lennard, Road, pp. 28 – 30; Cooke, et al., Auckland Infantry, p. 41.

[46]             Anon. ‘The Military Ordered to the front’, Daily Southern Cross, 9 July 1863, p. 3, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/DSC18630709.2.13, accessed 5 April 2018.

[47]             Lieutenant Colonel, 16 November 1863, In reference to Letter 2278 of the 12th Instant - 6 Carpenters and 6 Labourers of the Onehunga Volunteers have been placed at disposal of Royal Engineers Department, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24489567.

[48]              Captain 3rd Class AM [Auckland Militia], Auckland, 6 October 1863 Subject: Night watch being disbanded, suggests increased vigilance, original held in New Zealand National Archives, Wellington office, Item ID R24075917.

[49]             Moorhead, First, pp. 17 – 28.

[50]             James Cowan The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Volume I (1845–64), Wellington, 1955, Chapter 30: ‘The defence of Pukekohe East Church Stockade’, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow01NewZ-c30.html, accessed 5 April 2018; Maxwell, Frontier, pp. 64 – 65.

[51]             Cooke, et al., Auckland Infantry, pp. 47 – 48.

[52]             James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Volume I (1845–64), Wellington, 1955, Chapter 31: ‘Operations at the Wairoa’, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow01NewZ-c31.html, accessed 5 April 2018.

[53]             Henderson, et al., The Gunners, p. 26; James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Volume I (1845–64), Wellington, 1955, Chapter 34: The trenches at Meremere, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow01NewZ-c34.html, accessed 5 April 2018.

[54]             Jock Phillips and Terry Hearn, Settlers: New Zealand Immigrants from England, Ireland and Scotland 1800 – 1945, Auckland, 2008, pp. 34 – 41.

[55]             Captain G. F. Von Tempsky, 18 February 1864, on introducing from Germany, military settlers for New Zealand, original held in National Archives New Zealand, Wellington office, Item ID R24077462.

[56]             Alexander Bradley 16 March 1864, suggesting that several farmers from Ulster Ireland be introduced to this country for military settlers, original held in National Archives New Zealand, Wellington office, Item ID R24077349.

[57]             Frank Glen, For Glory and a Farm, Whakatane, 1985, pp. 12 – 14.

[58]             Bohan, Climates, p. 136.

[59]             Anon, ’Volunteer levies’, New Zealander, 4 September 1863, p. 2, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NZ18630904.2.9, accessed 5 April 2018.

[60]             Anon. ‘Camp Papakura’, Daily Southern Cross, 30 September 1863, p. 2, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/DSC18630930.2.12, accessed 3 April 2018.

[61]             H.C.M. Norris Armed Settlers 1864 – 1871, Hamilton, 1963, pp. 16 – 19.

[62]             O’Malley, War, p. 457.

[63]             David Green, Battlefields of the New Zealand Wars: A Visitors Guide, Auckland, 2010, p. 17.

[64]             Colonel Kenny, 28 January 1860, Defences of Papakura and Drury, original held in National Archives New Zealand, Wellington office, Item ID R24217555; Thomas Wayth Gudgeon, The Defenders of New Zealand, East Sussex, Naval & Military Press, 2008 [1887], pp. 192 – 194.

[65]             James Cowan The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Volume I (1845–64), Wellington, 1955, Militia Duty in the Waikato War, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cow01NewZ-b4.html, accessed 5 April 2018

[66]             Simmons, Foodways, p. 95

[67]             Richard J. Taylor, ‘British logistics in the New Zealand Wars, 1845 – 66’, Ph.D. thesis, Massey University, 2004; Davis, ‘Imperial’, pp. 90 – 93.

[68]             From: Major De Quincey Date: [3 March 1864] Subject: Memorandum for Orders. Settlers and Volunteer Forces at places named to parade once a week - 2nd Battalion Auckland and Onehunga Rifle and Naval volunteers to discontinue military duties till further orders, original held in National Archives New Zealand, Wellington office, Item ID R24490567.

[69]             A. J. Harrop, England and the Maori Wars, London, 1937, Chapter 7 — A Confiscation Policy, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-HarEngl-t1-body-d7.html, accessed 5 April 2018.

[70]             Preston, Military, p. 149; F.L.W. Wood, New Zealand in the World, Wellington, 1940, Chapter 3: Self Reliance, pp. 49 – 51, http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WooNewZ-t1-body-d3.html, Accessed 18 June 2018.

[71]             Maxwell, Frontier, pp. 152 – 153.

[72]             Jock Phillips, To the Memory: New Zealand’s War Memorials, Nelson, pp. 19 – 57.

[73]             Reserves - File about St. John’s Redoubt 1980 to 1987. original held in National Archives New Zealand, Auckland office. Item ID R21462260.

[74]             Nigel Prickett, ‘The archaeology of the New Zealand Wars’, Australasian Historical Archaeology, vol. 10, 1992, pp. 3-14; Nigel Prickett, Fortifications of the New Zealand Wars, Wellington, 2016, pp. 1 – 244.

[75]             Green, Battlefields, pp. 87 - 126; Neville Ritchie, The Waikato War of 1863 – 64, Te Awamutu, 2007.

[76]             Anon. ‘New Zealand Land Wars should be taught in high school says Waikato history teacher’, Stuff, https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/102488733/new-zealand-land-wars-should-be-taught-in-high-school-says-waikato-history-teacher, accessed 6 April 2018.